INTENSIVE TECHNOLOGIES IN HORTICULTURE

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INTENSIVE TECHNOLOGIES IN HORTICULTURE. WHAT DOES IT MEAN?

Everywhere in our daily live we meet new technologies: media, buildings, transport, IT, marketing and etc. And it is not surprising for us anymore. Intensive technologies are not new in agriculture too, simply, take a look at field crops with new machines, GPS based fertilization or disease control. And it is not surprising for us too. But there are still discussions and doubts regarding intensive technologies in fruit and berry growing. We can’t compare field or vegetable crops with perennial orchards. We can’t change an orchard every year. Even in ten years we not change it. Thus, implementation of intensive technologies in fruit and berry growing takes much longer time. But it will happen! No one wants to drive Moskvitch if he can drive Mercedes!

Pioneers of intensification of horticulture were farmers from Netherlands. And they started with apples. The reason was simple – limited land resources at extremely high price. Therefore maximum income has to be reached from the unit of area. Later it was noticed that high yields and excellent fruit quality could be achieved by intensive care. Plus, much easier management (pruning and harvesting, pest and diseases control) with less labour power was an additional value of intensive technologies.

Modern fruit orchards are densely planted small trees. Apple growers instead of 300 tree/ha in extensive orchards started to plant 3000 – 5000 tree/ha and even more (Picture 1). The same story happened in pear orchards. And that it was achieved when dwarf rootstocks became available. The biggest choice of dwarf rootstocks is for apples. Therefore, intensive horticultural technologies started in apple orchards. Later intensification came to other fruit species like pears, sweet cherries, plums and etc. Nowadays, in Europe and USA, New Zealand and Chile, and in other important fruit growing regions all new planted orchards are intensive. No other choice!

Picture 1. Extensive apple orchard with 5-6 m high trees on the left requires hard work and ladders to prune trees, to harvest fruits and etc. Intensive apple orchard on the right. Everything is done from the ground. Keep hands in your pockets!

BENEFITS OF INTENSIVE HORTICULTURE

Early yields. All investments in the orchard should return as soon as possible. Biologically, due to rootstock effect, dwarf trees are more precocious and start to yield already in the year of planting. During the first three years cumulative apple yields up to 60 t/ha could be achieved.

Full production in few years. Dense planted trees in the third – fourth year already reach projected area in the orchard. It means they form fruiting wall up to 2.5 – 3 m (Picture 2). At the same time widely planted trees need even 8-10 years to occupy their place in the orchard. Already in the fourth year dwarf apple, pear or cherry orchard is in full production, when extensively planted orchard will reach productive age only in the 10^th year after planting.

Picture 2. Six year old intensive apple orchard in full productive age. Trees occupied projected area and form a fruiting wall.

High quality fruits. Studies on light distribution have shown that thick canopies have too much heavily shaded area with poor fruit quality in those areas. Narrow canopies with a depth of no more than 80-90 cm have better light distribution. Due to constant sun exposure to fruits, they are of bigger size and much more colourful (Picture 3). At the same time their quality is more equal. Compare with the high trees with nice apples outside the tree crown and some green pale fruits under the leaves inside. So, much higher proportion of premium quality fruits is harvested in intensive orchard. And this is true for other fruit species like pears, plums, peaches and etc.

Not complicated thinning. Fruit quality and constant bearing depends on crop load. Higher crop – smaller fruits, higher crop - less yield in the next year. To avoid alternating bearing and to increase fruit quality, flower or fruitlet thinning is applied. Thinning usually is done with the help of certain chemicals or mechanically by special machines, but additional hand thinning is needed in most cases and almost every year. To thin flowers or fruitlets of small tree by hand is easier in comparison with the same procedure in standard size trees with large and dense crown.

Picture 3. All fruits on the dwarf tree are exposed to sun. Due to fruitlet thinning all fruits are of the same size and premium external quality.

Easy pruning and tree training. Biological dwarf rootstock effect is not only reduced tree size, but also a change of relation between vegetative and generative development. Instead of wood dwarf trees grow fruits. When harvest of fruits is compared with pruned twigs, the ratio in intensive orchard is 70 to 30 % in favourite to fruits, and visa verse in extensive orchard. Less vegetative growth causes easy and fast pruning mainly with hand secateurs. One skilled worker can prune 12-16 trees per day in the extensive orchard, and more than 200 trees per day in intensive orchard. And everything could be done from the ground without ladders or platforms.

More effective pest and disease control. Proper pest and disease control is the main task for every fruit grower. Not dense and narrow canopies allow the chemicals to reach every leaf and every fruit, to cover them equally, with less drift of chemicals. Intensive orchards with the modern sprayers could be sprayed by using 250-300 l/ha of solution while for big trees 1200 - 1500 l/ha is needed.

Simple harvest. Due to dwarf trees and equal fruit quality one worker during the harvest season picks 1200 – 1500 kg of apples per day in intensive orchard (and works on the ground) and only 500 – 600 kg in extensive orchard, where high and dangerous ladders are necessary.

Early revenue of investment. That is counted that revenue of investments for soil preparation, planting material, planting of trees, pest and disease control, support system and fences depends on orchard type. Due to early and abundant yield of high quality fruits revenue of expenses of intensive apple orchard of 3000 trees/ha on dwarf rootstocks comes in 5-6^th year after the planting, while on semi-dwarfing rootstocks (1200-1500 tree/ha) – in 7-8^th , but revenue of extensive orchard comes only in 10-12^th year after the planting (Table 2). And it doesn’t matter that initial investments are few times higher for intensive orchard (Table 1), it worth to plant it!

Table 1. Establishment costs of different type of apple orchard (based on prices in Lithuania), (Euros/ha)

Type of the orchard	Planting material		Soil preparation and fertilization	Planting costs	Espalier system	Tree training	Pest and disease control	Total cost in the year of planting
Type of the orchard	Number of trees	Costs	Soil preparation and fertilization	Planting costs	Espalier system	Tree training	Pest and disease control	Total cost in the year of planting
Extensive	300	900	300	150	0	50	900	2300
Semi dwarf	1200	3600	300	600	4000	400	900	9800
Dwarf	3000	9000	300	1500	4000	1000	900	16700

Table 2. Ratio of annual expenses* (–) and income** (+) for production and the year of investments revenue (based on prices in Lithuania), (Euros/ha)

Type of the orchard	Total cost in the year of planting 1^st year	Ratio of costs for management and income for the yield
Type of the orchard	Total cost in the year of planting 1^st year	2^nd year	3^rd year	4^th year	5^th year	6^th year	7^th year	8^th year
Extensive	-2300	-3000	-3000	-3000	-3000	-1500	1000	5000
Semi dwarf	-9800	-3500	-3000	0	2000	6000	8000***	8000
Dwarf	-16700	-2000	2000	6000	10000***	10000	10000	10000

*Management: pests and disease control, fertilization, pruning and training, soil management, harvest costs.

** apple price 0.4 euro/kg

*** the year of investments revenue

INTENSIVE HORTICULTURE DOESN’T LIKE MISTAKES

Intensive horticulture means not only early and abundant yield, but intensive management too. Without precise technology and timely fulfilled all technological elements a big failure could happen. Instead of expected results and economic benefits disappointment could come. Intensive horticulture is much more sensitive to mistakes comparing to traditionally extensively grown orchard.

Planting the orchard is a long term investment. Planting the orchard is a big investment too. The high density plantings can require a grower to invest 16 - 20 000 Euro per ha. It is very important that the planting of an orchard be well planned including the site, the planting and the tree management. The precise planning for high density plantings will pay off in maximizing yields and returns over the productive life of the orchard. Mistakes made in the planning and planting can be very costly and are difficult to correct in later years. It is paramount that careful attention be paid to the site selection, soil preparation, tree quality, cultivar selection and tree training in the young age.

Site selection.

Slopes are important for soil erosion, frost protection, water infiltration. The ideal site is on rolling or elevated land, so that cold air can drain during spring frosts. Cold air is heavier than warm air and will travel down a slope to lower elevations. Don‘t plant an orchard in the valley.

Topography:

Ideal slope – 2-10%
Acceptable – 10-20%
Marginal – 20-40%
Unsuited – Greater than 40%

Slope direction:

Greater winter temperature fluctuations, warms up faster in spring, bloom earlier – greater risk for frost damage to flowers. The most warm slope – sum of active temperatures more by 25% as on north orientated slopes. Earlier ripening – good for the early crop, or for very late cultivars that require long vegetation period.
Tends to be windier. Wind can cause spraying problems during the growing season, pollination problems during the blossom time, damages of fruits.
Intermediate. Receive morning sun earlier than others. More active photosynthesis. Fruits and foliage on this slope may dry off earlier in the mornings, thus reducing pressure from certain diseases.
Warms up slower in spring, bloom later, harvest later. Good if there is a need to extend the harvest window.

In planes and valleys the soil more often is too wet. Tree vegetation lasts longer and they could not prepare for the dormancy until the winter. I the cold regions such fruit trees could be damaged by frost. In planes and valleys is a bad air circulation – cold air or mist keeps longer, therefore trees are more susceptible to disease.

Soil properties.

Soil fertility should be medium to low. Most of fruit species have a low demand for the main nutrients. For example apple orchard in full production (30-35 t/ha) requires only 33 kg/ha nitrogen, 5 kg/ha phosphorus, 51 kg/ha potassium, 25 kg/ha calcium, 5 kg/ha magnesium. That is several times lower amounts of nutrients needed for field crops or vegetables. Overly fertile soils can lead to excessive tree growth. It is easier to add fertilizer to increase tree vigour than to try reducing vigour. Fruit trees grow well in soil with a pH of 6.0 to 6.5. Higher or lower levels can cause nutrient deficiencies. Especially B, Cu, Mn, Zn, and Fe uptake could be seriously reduced at pH higher than 7.2.

Good soil drainage is very important. Most of intensive grown fruit trees can’t withstand waterlogged soils for extended periods of time during the growing season. Stone fruits (peaches, cherries, and plums) are the most susceptible to poor drainage. Apples are intermediate, and pears can survive on the more poorly drained soils.

Collect pre-plant soil samples well in advance of planting to allow adequate time to apply needed soil amendments. Use needed fertilizers and their rate according soil analysis (table ). If there is enough nutrients in upper and lower soil layers, and the ratio of K/Mg is lower than 3.5, such soils do not require fertilization before orchard establishment.

Table 3. Soil nutrient content and recommended fertilization rate before planting.

Soil	Nutrient content
Soil	low	medium	high
	P₂O₅ content (mg/kg soil)
All types of soil: layer 0-20 cm layer 21-40 cm	<45 <35	45-90 35-70	>90 >70
	P₂O₅fertilization rate, kg/ha
	300	100-200	-
Layer 0-20 cm	K₂O content (mg/kg soil)
Sandy loam Loam Clay	<60 <100 <150	60-100 100-150 150-250	>100 >150 >250
Layer 21-40 cm Sandy loam Loam Clay	<35 <60 <100	35-60 60-100 100-150	>60 >100 >150
	K₂O fertilization rate, kg/ha
	150-300	100-200	-
	MgO content (mg/kg soil)
Sandy loam Loam, clay	<40 <70	40-70 70-100	>70 >100
All types of soil	K/Mg ratio
	Very high	high	optimal
	>6	3,5-6	<3,5
	MgO fertilization rate, kg/ha
	120-200	60-120	-

PART 2

Soil preparation.

Soil before planting is fertilized if needed by simple fertilizers: superphosphate and potassium chloride. If there is possibility, organic fertilizers (manure) could be applied or siderites (white mustard, rape and etc.) for green manure grown. The rate of manure is 60-80 t/ha. Manure not only supply nutrients to the soil but at the same time improve soil physical properties (structure, water holding capacity). Usually, together with manure weed seeds are incorporated. Therefore there should be enough time to control weeds. The best time to apply manure is one year before planting.

Noxious perennial weeds should be controlled in advance of planting because the selection of effective herbicides is greater and the dangers accompanying misapplication are less at this time. Most of perennial weeds will be controlled by the mixture of herbicides with active substances: glyphosates (3-6 l/ha) and MCPA (1.5-2 l/ha). If the soil for orchard is very weedy it is better one season before planting to keep it as fallow (“chiornyj par”). Weeds should be controlled here mechanically (cultivation, ploughing, disc harrowing) till the mid-summer. Later after emerging of perennial weeds, when they reach 15-20 cm, herbicides are applied. If the soil for the orchard is not weedy, siderites are sown in spring time, ploughed at the end of June. Later emerging weeds are controlled mechanically or by herbicides. If sideretes are grown apply nitrogen fertilizers for them – more green manure will be obtained and more nutrients will become available for planted trees.

Don’t plough the soil deeper than 30-35 cm. There is no need to bring out not fertile soil from the deeper layer.

Planting time. The best tree adaptation and following growth when they are planted in autumn. Less cold hardy species as nectarines and peaches should be planted in spring if expected temperature in the winter could drop down -15^oC. All fruit trees should be planted in spring if the temperature during the winter could be lower than -25^oC. Planting in spring must be as early as possible in order to get good initial tree growth.

Row orientation. If slope allows, it is important to align rows north-south direction in order to get more sunlight and allow quality fruit to be produced.

Planting material. Choose the best quality plants. Additional expenses for the quality will be paid back with better growth, early yields and easier training. For intensive orchards use only certified virus free planting material (Picture 5). Maiden trees should have at least 4 side branches not lower than 70 cm from the ground. Lower left branches in 2-3 years under the weight of fruits will hang down on the soil and will make difficulties for soil management and harvesting.

Apples and pears grown as knip tree have branches with wide angle between the limb and the trunk. Such horizontally positioned branches are stronger (not breaks up) than upright branches (Picture 4). Branches of two years old tree usually should be tied down to horizontal position. One year old feathered trees are the best choice for stone fruits species.

Picture 4. Types of planting material: a) one year old not feathered tree, b) one year old feathered tree, c) two years old tree, d) knip tree (two years old with one year old crown)

Picture 5. On the left. The best quality planting material must be used for the establishment of intensive orchards. On the right. Dying orchard planted with not certified for viruses planting material.

Planting depth. All trees on vegetative propagated rootstocks (clonal rootstock) must be planted leaving the graft union between rootstock and scion above soil surface. If the graft union will be deepened into the ground all positive rootstock features will be lost – dwarf tree (especially apples) will become vigorous one. If the graft union is left to high above soil surface dwarfing effect could be too strong. Growth of such tree will be stunted, fruits will be smaller, expected orchard life will be shorter (Picture 6). Depending on plant species and vegetative rootstock graft union should be above soil surface: 5-20 cm for apples, 5-10 cm for sweet cherries, 0-10 cm for pears, 0-5 cm for plums.

If severe winters are prevailing in the region and temperature drops down -25^oC, trees on less winter-hardy rootstocks (M.9 for apples; Quince C for pears) should be planted in such way that graft union was not higher than 5 cm above soil in order to avoid frost damages during the winter.

Picture 6. All trees are 6 year old of the same variety and the same rootstock. Only one difference is planting depth. Tree on the left planted to shallow (graft union 30 cm above soil) and poorly developed. Tree on the right planted too deep, grows too strong and has fewer yields. Tree in the middle planted at 10 cm is in optimal conditions.

Care after the planting.

All feathers lower than 70 cm above the ground should be removed. If the leader is to strong it should be shortened 20 cm above the highest side branch (Picture 7). During the first years of growth the main task is maximize tree growth after planting with irrigation and fertigation, minimize pruning at planting and in the first 3 years and perform branch bending to induce early cropping. With the use of highly feathered trees, significant yield can be achieved in the second year after planting. Don’t let to bear fruits in the first year after the planting.

Picture 7. Pruning of apple and pear tree after the planting.

Orchard soil management

Soil management in the orchard has several goals: should be easy to maintain, provide good conditions for trees and fruits, maintain soil structure, reduce soil erosion, not compete with trees for the water and nutrients.

Different soil management systems could be chosen:

Grass alleys between rows with vegetation free strips in the row.
Grass alleys between rows with mulch system in the row.
Cover crops (siderites) between rows with vegetation free strips or mulch system in the row.
Total clear cultivation.

The number of cultivations should be kept to a minimum since cultivation results in soil compaction, oxidation, and loss of organic matter. Cultivation can destroy roots if it is too deep or close to trees (Picture 8).

Picture 8. Frequently cultivated orchard not the best system for intensive horticulture especially at slopes.

A permanent vegetative cover in the orchard offers all of the advantages (Picture 9). It is easier to work in the orchard with a grass cover in early spring and late autumn and easier and cheaper to mow than to cultivate. Since the soil is never cultivated, there is no risk of damage to roots nor breakdown of soil organic matter or soil structure. The soil is continuously protected from erosion. The need for organic amendments is also eliminated. The sod system is suitable for apple, pear and plum. There are clear evidences that apple fruits are more colourful if the grass between rows is maintained. Peaches and apricots may also be grown in sod, but extra care is needed to minimize competition for moisture and nutrients.

There is only one negative side of permanent grass cover. It competes with the trees for the moisture and nutrients, therefore it should be mowed 5-8 times per season and higher rates of nitrogen should be applied (Picture 10).

Picture 9. Recommended soil management in intensive orchard: permanent frequently mowed grass cover between rows and herbicides strips in the row.

Only monocotyledon grass is used for soil cover. Flowering grass could attract bees and they will suffer from pesticides used for plant protection. The width of the grass alley should be as narrow as possible in order to avoid grass and tree competition but not narrower as distance between tractor wheels. If plants are planted 3 m between rows – width of grass alley is 1.5 m, if 4 m - width of grass alley is 2 m.

When the grass reach 15-20 cm it should be mowed. Cut grass is left as a mulch and source of organic matter. At the end of summer and early autumn, grass could be left higher. Higher grass will use more nitrogen and fruits will get more intensive colour and trees will better prepare for the winter.

After the harvest the grass between rows must be mowed avoiding mouse invasion and following tree trunk damages.

Picture 10. Orchard grass mower.

Weeds in the row must be controlled to eliminate competition for moisture and nutrients. Herbicides have made this much easier. Usually two applications of herbicides will frequently give season-long control. Apples are less sensitive to herbicides as other fruit crops so wider spectrum of herbicides and higher rates could be used. All herbicides according their action are grouped into soil, systemic and contact herbicides.

Soil herbicides as Kerb, Casaron, Devrinol, Azotop, Sanazine control seed germination and are the best for annual weeds. Apply soil herbicides according following recommendations:

should be applied on the wet soil;
apply only once per year in the late autumn or in very early spring;
use 600 l/ha of working solution.

Systemic herbicides could be broad spectrum as herbicides that active ingredient is glyphosate or selective as Lontrel, MCPA and etc. for dicotyledonous weeds, and Fuzilade, Leopard, Agil and etc. for monocotyledon weeds.

Apply systemic herbicides according following recommendations:

spray with special sprayers in order to avoid chemical drift on the leaves;
before application of glyphosates or herbicides against dicotyledonous weeds all root suckers must be removed;
apply on intensive growing weeds (10-20 cm);
start application of glyphosates only two years after planting of orchard. Or must avoid access of chemical on tree trunk (bark of young tree is sensitive to glyphosates)
use 200 - 300 l/ha of working solution.

Contact herbicides as Reglon, Basta and etc. control all weeds by burning green part of them. Perennial weeds regrow after one month after the application. Contact herbicides are the best choice in the young orchard (first two years after planting) where glyphosates can’t be used.

Picture 11. Orchard herbicide sprayer with protection avoiding drift on the leaves (photo from the WEB).

Non-chemical way of controlling weeds under the tree is by the use of a mulches (Picture 12). Hay, straw, and wood chips make excellent mulches. In addition to reducing the competition for nutrients and moisture, the mulch conserves soil moisture by reducing evaporation and adding organic matter. It also adds nutrients such as nitrogen and potassium as it breaks down. The mulch provides higher winter and lower summer soil temperatures. It increases root activity in the surface soil and may also increase microbial activity. Fall is an ideal application time. Mouse control by baiting is extremely important when mulches are used. Keep the mulch at least 25-30 cm away from the tree trunk. Apply sufficient mulch layer (15 cm depth).

Picture 12. Mulching of young trees by rape straw

PART 3

Support system

All plants for intensive orchards are propagated on dwarf rootstocks. Trees on these rootstocks have a shallow root system and can fall down or brake under fruit weight (Picture 13). Therefore great attention should be paid for tree support system. Apples, pears and plums are three fruit tree species that require support during all their life in the intensive orchard starting from the first year. Despite of availability of dwarf rootstocks for sweet cherries, apricots or peaches, trees of these species are free standing even in intensive orchards. Espaliers sometimes are necessary for them too if special tree training (different types of palmettos, V system, UFO training) is used.

Picture 13. Proper support system is necessary in intensive apple and pear orchard.

Stakes for every tree is the simplest support system (Picture 14). But they should stand for whole orchard life thus it is important to select them carefully. They should be at least 3 m high and 6-8 cm in diameter. Use wood species that not rotten fast. Stakes must be properly impregnated. Some tree species do not rot. One of them is false acacia and chestnut. Note that round wood is more durable than the wood that has been sawed. Only dry wood should be used for stakes.

Stakes are hammered in about 60-70 cm deep in to the soil, 15 cm apart from the tree.

Picture 14. Apple trees in intensive orchard tied to single stakes.

Single stake system is easy to establish, but it is too costly if more than 1200 tress/ha are planted.

If more than 1500 trees/ha are planted espalier system is cheaper. It could be of two types. First, with single wire at 2 m height and separate stakes of 2.5 m for every tree. In this case stakes are not hammered in into the soil and more cheap wood (bamboo, sawed wood) is used. The upper part of the stake is tied on the wire and bottom of the stake to the tree stem (Picture 15). Tree training, pruning and harvesting is easier in such system because a worker can go around the tree. These benefits are eliminated in other espalier system where only 3-4 wires are used (Picture 16).

Picture 15. Espalier system with one wire and bamboo stakes.

Picture 16. Establishment of espalier with 4 wires.

3-4 wire espalier is the cheapest support system. The first wire is tied at 70 cm height – right were tree crown starts, other wires are tied up in 50 cm distance. Wire should be 3-4 mm diameter mad from stainless steel. Trees stem is tied to the wire by elastic polyvinyl string, but stem can’t contact a wire. In order to avoid bark chafes, firstly 5-8 cm of the wire is wrapped by the string and tree stem is attached and tightened to this wrapped place.

For both espaliers types concrete poles or iron tubes (2.7-3 m height) are placed at 10-15 m distances in the row and hammered in at 70 cm depth. The marginal poles at the beginning and the end of the rows are secured by anchoring.

Intensive horticulture: where money could be saved?

Use mechanization as much as possible: don’t cut a grass by the trimmer, use a tractor mower instead. Don’t spray by backpack sprayer (20 l volume), use tractor sprayer (1500 l volume) instead. Use different platforms instead of ladders.
Give only such nutrients to plants what they need. Fertilize only according soil and leaf analysis.

Intensive horticulture: where is not allowed to save money?

performing tree training and pruning not every year.
using less plant protection means
not doing thinning of fruits

All these technological means are directed to fruit quality, and it is the biggest mistake to save on that. Even if improvement of fruit quality requires additional resources it worth to spend them. Don’t count total yield from the orchard – count marketable yield of premium quality fruits.

Income in the orchard is easier to increase by choosing right varieties or fruit species, or growing big fruits, than trying to reduce orchard maintenance costs and not fulfilling all technological tasks.

PART 4.

INTENSIVE APPLE GROWING TECHNOLOGY

Rootstock choice. Only dwarf rootstocks must be used for intensive apple orchard. M.9 and its clones M.9 T337 (Netherlands), Pajam 1 and 2 (France) are the most popular rootstocks in the world. For the locations with more severe winters without permanent snow cover Budagovski rootstocks B.9 and B.396 (62-396) from Russia or P 67 and P 60 from Poland are recommended.

Variety choice. Apple variety choice depends on the market strategy. If early apples are not of the best price, winter cultivars with good storage ability should be chosen. In the warmer regions of Georgia, most of world wide apple cultivars could be grown. More on the cultivar choice see in Recommendation part.

Planting density. In general the greater the planting density, the greater the investment cost to establish the orchard. However, due to higher early yield and higher cumulative yield, profitability was generally increased with increased tree density up to a certain point. Nevertheless, less gain in cumulative yield as more trees are planted per ha, meant that very high tree densities were not more profitable than more moderate densities. The most profitable planting densities are 2300 – 3500 trees/ha (Table 4).

Distance between rows depends on the width of tractor and orchard equipment. Specialized narrow orchard tractors are needed for orchards planted 3 m between rows.

Distances between the trees in the row depend on cultivar vigour and tree training system. For the most cultivars 1 – 1.25 m are recommended. Distances up 1.5 m could be for strong growing apple varieties (Granny Smith, Pink Lady).

Table 4. Recommended planting schemes and tree number per hectare for intensive apple orchards. Red coloured lines indicate economically viable planting scheme.

Distances between trees in the row, m	Distances between rows, m
Distances between trees in the row, m	3.0	3.5	4.0
0.50	6666	5714	5000
0.75	4444	3809	3333
0.85	3922	3361	2941
1.00	3333	2857	2500
1.25	2667	2286	2000
1.50	2222	1904	1666
2.00	1666	1428	1250
2.50	1333	1142	1000

Fertilization of bearing apple orchard. Apple fertilization rate depends on soil and leaf nutrient content. Soil analysis is necessary to do before orchard establishment, but in the bearing orchard leaf analysis is a more precise tool to optimize tree nutrition (Table 5). According leaf nutrient content orchard is fertilized by main fertilizers by spreading them onto the ground (Table 6). Nitrogen is applied twice: half of needed amount is brought in early spring just before bud brake, another half after the flowering, when nitrogen fertilization could be adjusted according fruit set: good fruit set – all amount should be given, bad pollination and fewer fruits – less nitrogen is given to trees, in order not to promote vegetative growth. All others fertilizers are given in autumn time.

Table 5. Nutrient content level in apple leaves

Nutrient	Very low	Lower than optimum	Optimum	Higher than optimum
Nitrogen (N)*	<1.80	1.80–2.09	2.10–2.40	>2.40
Potassium (K)*	<0.70	0.70–0.99	1.00–1.50	>1.50
Magnesium (Mg)*	<0.18	0.18–0.21	0.22–0.32	>0.32
Phosphorus (P)*		<0.15	0.15–0.26	>0.26
Boron (B)**	<18	18–24	25–45	>45
Manganese (Mn)**	<20	20–40	41–100	>100
Iron (Fe)**	–	<100	100–300	>300
Zinc (Zn)**	–	<20	20–50	>50
Copper (Cu)**	–	<5	5–20	>20

* % dry matter; ** mg/kg dry matter.

Table 6. Fertilization rate (kg/ha) in bearing apple orchard

Nutrient	Nutrient content
Nutrient	Very low	Lower than optimum	Optimum	Higher than optimum
Nitrogen (N)	100-120	80–100	50–80	0–50
Potassium (K₂O)	140–200	100–140	60–100	0
Magnesium (MgO)	100–200	60–120	0	0
Phosphorus (P₂O₅)	–	60–100	0	0
Boron (B)	5	3	0	0

If there is a lack of some micronutrients, spraying through the leaves is recommended. Fertilizers and their application time shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Apple tree fertilization trough the leaves.

Nutrient in deficiency	Application time	Fertilizers and their rate kg/ha	Concentration of the solution, %	Frequency
N	After flowering After the harvest	Urea – 5 kg Urea – 50 kg	0.5 5	3–4* 1
K	After flowering	K₂SO₄ – 10 kg	1	3–4*
Mg	After flowering June-July	MgSO₄·7H₂O – 10 kg MgSO₄·7H₂O – 20 kg	1 2	1 3–4*
Ca	June-September	CaCl₂, (Ca(NO₃)₂) – 3–8 kg	0.3–0.8	3–8*
B	After flowering Before leaf drop	Borax – 5 kg Borax – 10 kg	0.5 1	1–2* 1
Zn	At bud brake Before leaf drop	ZnSO₄ – 3 kg ZnSO₄ – 5 kg	0,3 0,5	1 1
Mn	After flowering	MnSO₄·7H₂O – 2 kg	0,2	1–2*
Fe	After flowering	FeSO₄– 5 kg	0,5	3–4*
Cu	After flowering	CuSO₄ – 1 kg	0,1	1–2*

* Application every 10–14 days;

Training of apple trees. The main task of tree training and pruning is provide the best light condition for fruits and optimize tree vegetative growth and generative development (growth and fruiting).

Apple tree training depends on planting distances. The most common tree shapes in intensive orchard are Slender spindle (Picture 17) and Super spindle (Picture 18) with their modifications. Trees are trained as super spindles when distance between trees is less than 1 m. Trees are trained as slender spindles when distance between trees is more than 1 m.

Apples usually are pruned three times per year (not once per three year!!!). Large cuts of three year old and older branches are done during the winter or early spring during the tree dormancy. At the same time all upright growing branches especially that form a narrow angle with main stem are removed. Branches thicker than half of the stem are removed too.

When the tree reaches projected height (2.5 m) the tree top is lowered at this level making a cut just above week side branch. Two – three weeks after the end of flowering is the best time for tree lowering. If such cut would be made during the dormant season strong regrowth would be observed. In June new strong growing upright shoots, shoots on the top of the tree or at the end of side branches are removed too.

The third pruning time is two – one months before expected harvest. At this time new shoots that makes a dense crown are removed. In this case fruits get more light and became more colourful, there is less competition between shoots and fruits for nutrition therefore fruit storage quality increases.

Picture 17. Apple tree trained as slender spindle. Lower branches are permanent, upper branches are 1-3 years old.

Picture 18. Apple tree trained as super spindle. All branches are 1-3 years old.

Thinning of flowers or fruitlets. Every fruit grower would like to get 80-90% of extra class one size fruits from his orchard (Picture 19). Thinning is needed to increase fruit quality and to avoid alternating bearing. How much to thin or, in other words, how many fruits to leave depends on the planting distances, tree age and tree size, cultivar properties (large size fruits or medium size fruits), is it prone to alternate bearing or not. According these data thinning strategy should be chosen. Simply, if the planed yield is 60 t/ha, and there are 3000 tress/ha planted, it means we need to harvest 20 kg of fruits per each tree. If the average fruit weight is 200 g – 100 fruits on a tree should be left. These numbers could be reached by special thinning chemicals (their choice depends on application time: urea and ATS during full flowering, Pomonit at the end flowering until fruitlets reach 10-12 mm diameter, Cerone during the flowering and later in the mixture with others chemicals, Paturyl and others benzyl-adenins when fruitlets reach more than 12 mm diameter) or made by hand. Effect of thinning agents depends strongly on weather conditions – temperature, humidity and sun.

Picture 19. Apple fruits from the not thinned tree on the left. On the right the same apple variety from the tree which was thinned during the flowering time.

Depending on the apple variety two (for large size fruit varieties) or one fruit (for small or medium size fruit varieties) on the flower cluster should be left. At the same time distance between fruits should be 10-15 cm.

Optimal harvest time. Identification of harvest date plays a key role as the quality of fruit depends on the right harvesting time and appropriate storage conditions during the postharvest period (Picture 20). Too early picked fruits have worse taste, are less colourful; are more sensitive to physiological diseases during the storage. When harvest is too early, yield losses occur, since fruits gain 10-15% of their weight during the last two ripening weeks. If harvest is too late, fruits are more sensitive to low temperatures and fungi diseases during the storage, more fruits drop from the tree, fruits loses their transportability.

Picture 20. Fruit quality changes during the last month of ripening.

There are different methods for predicting of optimal harvest time based on fruit firmness, soluble solid content, ethylene production, chlorophyll degradation and etc. One the most common is Starch-iodine test: as apples ripen, starch is converted to sugars. In the starch test, iodine binds with starch granules in the fruit and develops into a dark purple colour. The less iodine development (less dark purple colour) that you see, the more ripe the apple. Variety specific charts should be developed (Picture 21).

Picture 21. Starch degradation during the ripening of apples. Every horizontal line – different variety.

PART 5.

INTENSIVE PEAR GROWING TECHNOLOGY: main notes

Rootstock choice. Choice of really dwarfing rootstocks for pears is limited. Only rootstocks originated from quinces (Cydonia oblonga) could be compared to semidwarfing M.26 or semivigorous MM.106 rootstock for apples: pears on quince rootstock reach 65-75% of seedling rootstock. The most common rootstocks for pears are: QA, BA29, Sydo, more dwarfing Adams and the most dwarfing QC.

Quince rootstocks are susceptible to lime induced chlorosis what is associated with alkaline soils (high pH). In such soils more vigorous BA29 or Pyrodwarf rootstock (it originated from pear) are recommended. All quince rootstocks are not winterhardy and can’t stand temperatures below -20^oC. For the locations with more severe winters Pyrodwarf rootstock is recommended.

Variety choice. Pear varieties Conference, Xenia, Concorde and Doyenné de Comice are suited for storage and fresh consumption. Conference is self-fertile cultivar and can be grown in mono plantations. All other cultivars should be planted ensuring good cross pollination. 3-4 cultivars are recommended to plant in the orchard, no more than 4 rows of one cultivar in the row.

Planting density. Planting density depends on the rootstock vigour and tree training system. Distances between the trees in the row varies from 1m to 2 m.

Distance between rows depends on the width of tractor and orchard equipment. 3.5 – 4 m distance is recommended for intensive pear orchards.

Pears can be trained as super or slender spindles in the same manner as apple trees (Pictures 17 and 18). More intensive are V or Y shaped systems (Picture 22 on the left). Such systems allows early production and high yields, reduces pruning and harvesting costs as the tree structure is simple and can be reached from the ground. However, establishment costs are much higher than single row systems due to both the trellis construction and the early training of the trees.

Picture 22. On the left: Pears planted and trained according Open Tatura Trellis. Every alternating tree is diagonally planted or double leaders or even four leaders are formed from one stem. On the right: pear trees grown in cordon system.

Cordon system allows planting around 2000 trees/ha but to have about 8000 fruiting units growing up the wires (picture 22 on the right). Nursery trees are bent over at planting and trained to the horizontal. Fruiting units are then encouraged at regulars intervals along the cordon.

Fertilization of bearing pear orchard. Orchard fertilization is described in Apple growing technology. Optimal nutrient content in pear leaves is shown in table.

Table 8. Nutrient content level in pear leaves

Nutrient	Very low	Lower than optimum	Optimum	Higher than optimum
Nitrogen (N)*	<1.70	1.70-1.99	2.00-2.60	>2.60
Potassium (K)*	<0.50	0.50-0.99	1.00-1.70	>1.70
Magnesium (Mg)*	<0.12	0.12-0.17	0.18-0.30	>0.30
Phosphorus (P)*		<0.15	0.15-0.25	>0.25
Boron (B)**	<10	10-20	21-50	>50
Manganese (Mn)**	<25	25-30	31-100	>100
Zinc (Zn)**	<15	15-19	20-60	>60

* % dry matter; ** mg/kg dry matter.

INTENSIVE SWEET CHERRY GROWING TECHNOLOGY: main notes

Rootstock choice. Gisela 5, Gisela 4 and Colt rootstocks are the most suited for intensive growing systems. Even more vigorous rootstocks as Mahaleb or Gisela 6 could be used depending on tree training system and if the soil is not rich in nutrients.

Variety choice. Large fruited sweet cherry varieties Kordia, Lapins, Regina and Sweetheart are suited for fresh consumption. Lapins is self-fertile cultivar and can be grown in mono plantations. All other cultivars should be planted ensuring good cross pollination. 3-4 cultivars are recommended to plant in the orchard, no more than 2 rows of one cultivar in the row.

Rain protection. All large fruited cultivars are prone to fruit cracking if it is rain at the end of ripening or during the harvest season. Cherry orchard should be planted in places where is not rainy during the fruit ripening period or rain protection covers should be established over the orchard (Picture 23).

Picture 23. On the left: construction of rain protection covers for cherry orchard. 4.5 m poles fastened by wires forms construction for the rain cover. On the right: cherries under the rain cover.

Spanish bush and V system will allow for the development of a “pedestrian orchard” (Picture 24). A pedestrian orchard is defined as an orchard where two-thirds of the crop can be harvested from the ground, without the use of tall ladders.

Early training of Spanish bush consists of numerous headings, which unfortunately, retards precocity. At maturity the tree consists of typically 8-10 permanent leaders that are more or less vertical. Fruit is grown off of weak laterals that are renovated and rotated out on a five year alternation. Such multi-leader system allows maintaining trees at 2.5 m height even on not dwarfing rootstocks as Mahaleb. On more productive soils it is best to use a semi-dwarfing rootstock such as Gisela 6 or Colt to help control tree height. Depending on the rootstock planting distances if cherries are trained in Spanish bush system are between 2 – 3 m.

Every alternating tree in V system is diagonally planted or double leaders are formed from one stem. Lateral branches are bent to a horizontal angle in the establishment years rather than pruned, so the system is highly precocious. With this system it is often possible to get commercial yields in the 3rd year. But V system requires complicated espalier construction. Most dwarfing rootstocks as Gisela 5 should be used in this system. Planting distance is 1-1.5 m.

Picture 24. On the left: cherry orchard trained as Spanish bush. Trees are freestanding. Support is not needed. On the right: cherry orchard planted in V system.

The Vogel central leader system is best with dwarfing rootstocks as Gisela 5, as the central leader tends to grow too tall unless tree size is controlled by the rootstock (Picture 25). Typical spacing is 2.5 m between trees and 4.5 m between rows. The maximum tree height is 3 to 3.5 m. System requires little establishment pruning because it takes advantage of the inherent central leader nature of the young cherry tree. Minimal pruning, a modest growth rate due to dwarfing rootstocks, minimal fertilization during establishment, and an intermediate planting density result in relatively high early yields.

The “Christmas tree” shape promotes good light distribution throughout the canopy, and fruiting wood is renewed on a regular basis with this system.

Picture 25. Free standing Vogel central leader system

Some special pruning technics are used for cherries. The first is the use of stub cuts, where 15 to 25 cm stub is left when a pruning cut is made (Picture 26). This stub will trap the pathogen and prevent it from moving into the tree. Secondly, small branches are ripped, rather than cut out of trees, and finally a proper branch to trunk size ratio must be maintained. Branches that have a diameter at the base greater than ½ the diameter of the trunk are removed.

Picture 26. Stub cut prevents pathogens and diseases to penetrate to the stem of the tree.

INTENSIVE PEACH AND NECTARINE GROWING TECHNOLOGY: main notes

Rootstock choice. There are no really suited dwarf or semi-dwarf rootstocks for peaches and nectarines at this time, although there are some new rootstocks like VVA 1 in tests. Nevertheless peach or nectarine trees grown on seedling rootstocks can be specially trained, denser planted and their vigour could be kept in the size of semi-dwarf apple tree.

Planting density. Planting distances in the row depends on the training system: for Open centre – 4 m, Quad-V system – 3 m, TriV system – 2.2 m, Perpendicular-V system – 1.25-1.5 m.

Peach and nectarine trees usually are trained as an open centre system where 4-5 main branches are situated in a vase shape (Picture 27). Pruning aims in keeping the centre of the crown free from upright shoots, reducing crowding, limiting height of the tree and thinning of bearing branches. For peaches and nectarines only one year old shoots situated horizontally on scaffold limbs are left. The best quality fruits grow on these young branches. If they are longer than 40-60 cm, they are headed by one third. All two year and older laterals are removed.

Picture 27. Peach or nectarine tree before pruning on the top and after pruning on the right.

More intensive training systems are the V systems that are modifications of the Open Centre system and allow for higher densities. They could be the Perpendicular-V (two permanent upright scaffolds), the Tri-V (three permanent upright scaffolds) and the Quad V (four permanent upright scaffolds). The V systems use more upright scaffolds and are higher than Open centre. These systems require ladders for pruning, thinning and picking while the OC system does not.

Fruit thinning. That is ultimate task to grow peach or nectarine fruits as large as possible. Thinning of fruits and regulation of crop load is only one way to fulfil this requirement. 15-20 cm distance between fruits on the branch is the optimum to ensure a big fruit size. Crop load is adjusted manually or mechanically (Picture 28).

Picture 28. Mechanised thinning of peaches is performed when fruits reach walnut size.

INTENSIVE PLUM AND APRICOT GROWING TECHNOLOGY: main notes

Rootstock choice. There are no really suited dwarf or semi-dwarf rootstocks for apricots at this time, although there are some new rootstocks like VVA 1 (Krymsk 1) in tests. For intensive plum growing Wangenheim seedlings, Krymsk 1, St. Julien or some other vegetative rootstocks are recommended.

Variety choice. Plum and apricot cultivars are chosen according marketing strategy either for fresh fruits either for drying. Some of cultivars as plum Cacanska naibolja could be grown for both purposes. Other cultivars as Italian prune, Sutter suited mostly for drying.

Planting density. Plums on Wangenheim seedling or vegetative rootstocks are planted 1.5-2 m in the row. Apricot planting density depends on training system and is the same as for peaches and nectarines.

Plums and apricots can be trained very similar to peaches, however, if varieties have upright growing habitus Central leader system or Slender spindle are more useful (look at Cherry and apples training systems).

If plums or apricots are grown for drying and will be mechanically harvested, higher trees with close to natural crown could be trained.

Picture 29. Mechanical plum harvester (photo from the internet.

FERTILIZATION OF STONE FRUITS

Nutrient content in leaves for different species is provided in Tables 9 – 11. According nutrient content level (low, optimum and etc.) fertilizers rate is provided in Table 12. Note that leaves for the analysis are collected from mid-July till mid-August.

Table 9. Nutrient content level in sweet cherry leaves

Nutrient	Very low	Lower than optimum	Optimum	Higher than optimum
Nitrogen (N)*	<1.50	1.50-2.00	2.10-2.50	>2.50
Potassium (K)*	<1.00	1.00-1.49	1.50-1.90	>1.90
Magnesium (Mg)*	<0.20	0.20-0.39	0.40-0.60	>0.60
Phosphorus (P)*		<0.15	0.15-0.45	>0.45
Boron (B)**		<20	21-160	>45
Copper (Cu)**		<5	6-28	>28
Manganese (Mn)**	<0.20	20-29	30-70	>70

* % dry matter; ** mg/kg dry matter.

Table 10. Nutrient content level in plum leaves

Nutrient	Very low	Lower than optimum	Optimum	Higher than optimum
Nitrogen (N)*	<1.40	1.40-2.00	2.10-3.60	>3.60
Potassium (K)*	<1.00	1.00-1.64	1.65-3.25	>3.25
Magnesium (Mg)*	<0.10	0.10-0.30	0.31-0.70	>0.70
Phosphorus (P)*		<0.20	0.21-0.60	>0.60
Boron (B)**		< 25	26-60	>60
Copper (Cu)**		<5	5-10	>10
Manganese (Mn)**		<20	20-140	>140

* % dry matter; ** mg/kg dry matter.

Table 11. Nutrient content level in sour cherry leaves

Nutrient	Very low	Lower than optimum	Optimum	Higher than optimum
Nitrogen (N)*	<1.80	1.80-2.29	2.30-2.80	>2.80
Potassium (K)*	<0.70	0.70-1.19	1.20-1.80	>1.80
Magnesium (Mg)*	<0.15	0.15-0.25	0.26-0.40	>0.40
Phosphorus (P)*		<0.15	0.15-0.30	>0.30
Boron (B)**	< 18	18-24	25-45	>45
Manganese (Mn)**	<20	20-40	41-100	>100

* % dry matter; ** mg/kg dry matter.

Table 6. Fertilization rate (kg/ha) in bearing stone fruits orchard

Nutrient	Nutrient content
Nutrient	Very low	Lower than optimum	Optimum	Higher than optimum
Nitrogen (N)	100-150	80-100	50-80	0-50
Potassium (K₂O)	140-200	100-140	60-100	0
Magnesium (MgO)	100-200	60-120	0	0
Phosphorus (P₂O₅)	-	60-100	0	0
Boron (B)	5	3	0	0

NOT TRADITIONAL PLANTS. THAT IS INTERESTING, BUT RISKY!

These plants could be new worldwide like Zeigers interspecific hybrids, or not cultivated locally before. In both cases there is a risk either of bad adaptation of new plants to local climate conditions either of the lack of management experience with not traditional plants. Therefore before expansion of plantations, several plants should be planted and tested at least for 5 years in a case of fruit trees. Many of such plant species are more suited and interesting for amateur or home gardens, but some of them can become special niche products in the market.

Zaiger Genetics interspecific hybrids result from the cross-breeding of two or more species yielding new fruit types and cultivars with especially desirable new flavours, aromas, textures, degrees of sweetness and appearances.

There are various kinds of Zaiger Interspecific Fruit – hybrids of plum, apricot, peach/nectarine and cherry - classified according to their predominant horticultural characteristics, i.e. the fruit type they most resemble. Remark: interspecific hybridisation was performed in California therefore there is a risk of low winter hardiness of new plants. Test these plants at most favourite conditions like Marneuli or Bolnishi municipalities.

Interspecific Apricot

Aprium® complex hybrid primarily of apricot and plum with dominant parentage of apricot and having fruit resembling apricot.

Color-Cot™ complex Apricot hybrid having fruit resembling apricot with pubescent skin strongly blushed red or orange-red.

Peacotum® complex apricot-plum-peach hybrid with dominant parentage of apricot and having fruit resembling apricot.

Interspecific Nectarine

NectaPlum® Nectarine hybrid having fruit resembling nectarine.

Interspecific Peach

Peach-Plum Hybrid having fruit resembling peach.

Interspecific Plum

"Cherry Plum" Hybrid myrobalan plum x Japanese plum.

Pluerry™ complex hybrid, primarily of plum and cherry with dominant parentage of plum and having fruit resembling plum.

Pluot® complex hybrid with dominant parentage of plum and having fruit resembling plum.

Plumcot simple cross of plum and apricot.

ASIAN PEAR

Other names: Chinese Pear, Japanese Pear, Nashi, Apple Pear.

Asian pears differ from the traditional European ones. These pears are usually round, firm to touch when ripe, and are ready to eat after harvest. Asian pears reach prime quality when they ripen on the tree, like an apple and peach. These pears will be crisp, juicy, and slightly sweet with some tartness, especially near the core. There are several Asian pear varieties available. Japanese pears are more round in shape, while the Chinese pears are more oval or pyriform (pear-shaped). The Japanese type of Asian pear called 20th Century or Nijisseki is the most popular. It is easily identified with its round shape and smooth yellow skin. Other common varieties include the Japanese bronze-toned Hosui pear and the pear-shaped Ya Li, a pale-green Chinese Pear variety.

Asian pear trees begin bearing in the 3rd growing seasons. Until now there are no dwarfing rootstock for them, therefore planting distances are 3-4 m between trees and 5-6 m between rows. Tree training is similar to that for European pears. It is best to manage Asian pears as free-standing trees.

Many Asian pear varieties are considered partially self-fruitful (can produce up to a 15% crop from self-pollination) but it is best to always plant at least two varieties to ensure cross-pollination and full cropping potential.

AUTUMN RASPBERRY

Primocane varieties (or autumn bearing varieties) set fruits on the current year shoots. Harvest season starts in July and can last up to autumn frosts. Once fruiting is ended, all shoots are completely cut down to the ground. Next spring new shoots grow, flower and set fruits again. Such growing technology allows cultivation of large fruited primocane raspberries even in the regions with severe winters if permanent snow cover exists. There is a large choice of red and yellow raspberry varieties. Very popular varieties were bred in Poland.

TAYBERRY

Tayberry is a cross between blackberry and red raspberry released in Scotland, with large sweet dark purple fruits. Tayberries are vigorous plants and should be planted about 1.5-2.5 m apart. Espalier system of 3-4 wires should be established for floricane (varieties that flower and set fruits on the canes from previous year). Primocane varieties (varieties that flower and set fruits on the current year canes) require long season in order to be productive and give all potential yield before winter. Soil management, nutrition is similar to blackberry growing technology.

Picture 30. Autumn raspberry on the top and Tayberry fruits on the right (photos from internet)

RECOMMENDATIONS

Following recommendations are specific for different regions and municipalities, mainly based on soil properties, climatic conditions and locally adapted fruit species. Taking particular place for the establishment of orchard or berry plantation in certain municipality, information and suggestions how to choose location, how to prepare soil, what analysis should be made are provided in the first chapters of Guide book. Every place is unique with unique slopes, water regime, soil management history and grown species, therefore every time before making decision of orchard establishment situation in particular place should be examined again.

Before orchard establishment following questions should be explored:

What will be the main product? Will it be sold for fresh market or processing?
Where will be production sold? In local market, or orientated to export?
What quantities will be produced? Will be enough for the export or will be enough for supermarket chains in Georgia, or small amount of fruits or products will be sold in farmer markets near the roads?
In the case of export:
- To what regions? What their customers like?
- What quality requirements exist – very high as in Western Europe or somewhat lower as in East European countries?
- Does the growing of fruits should follow and be certified according quality systems like Global Gap, or Eurep-Gap?
- What will be the competition with existing suppliers?
- What direction to choose: export of main products (apples, pears, dried apricots or plumes) and have a high competition and reduced prices for big quantities, or export of niche products (Asian pears, dried cherries, freeze dried (liofilizated) products) with high value, but small amounts?

Export of fresh fruits or processed products to Europe seems to be very profitable. Unfortunately, there is a very tough competition in the market with the suppliers from around the world. Russian big cities could be an alternative export direction, even more profitable than Europe, both for main and niche products. Regardless all troubles in the Russian market, many European growers would like to sell their fruits there. Georgia is near! Georgian people know better and understand easier Russian market peculiarities.

Do not forget that common to Georgia fruit plant species as pomegranates, walnuts, kiwi, peaches, mandarins and others are not cultivated in the countries with temperate climate, therefore they are exported and have a higher price.

Local Georgian market must not be forgotten too. If locally grown apples have short storage capacity and all local apple market ends in three months after the harvest season, why not to grow and to sell during winter - spring period new apple varieties? Varieties that are productive, bear high quality fruits and have long storage capacity. Or to provide to the Georgian market new fruits and berries: Asian pears, tayberries or sweet cherries?

Growing fruits and berries for processing purposes quality requirements for the fruits and berries could be lower, pest and disease control could be not so strict, some technological parts as fruit thinning could be skipped.

Plant protection against pests and diseases is one of the important issues of intensive growing technology. One not made or delayed spray could destroy a whole season! Pest and disease control system should be developed according existing legislation, list of registered chemicals, crop and local conditions.

Provided recommendations are only a guide – decision should be made by yourself!!!

FRUIT TREE SPECIES AND VARIETIES FOR THE ORCHARDS IN DIFFERENT MUNICIPALITIES

MARNEULI and BOLNISI

Mild climate conditions in both municipalities allow growing of various fruit trees and berry plants. Suggested plant species and cultivars in the table are only optional.

Species	Cultivar	Rootstock	Purpose
Species	Cultivar	Rootstock	fresh	dried	export fresh	export dried
Plum	Cacanska naibolja	Wangenheim seedling	+	+	+	+
	Italian prune	Wangenheim seedling		+		+
	Turkish varieties			+		+
Sweet cherry	Lapins	Gisella 5 or Colt	+		+
	Kordia	Gisella 5 or Colt	+		+
	Regina	Gisella 5 or Colt	+		+
Sour cherry	Lutowka	Mahaleb seedling		+		+
Sour cherry	Meteor	Mahaleb seedling		+		+
Pear	Conference	Quince	+		+
Pear	Abate Fetel	Quince
Nashi pear	Nijisseiki	Pear seedling (Pyrus communis)	+		+
	Kosui	Pear seedling (Pyrus communis)	+		+
	Shinseiki	Pear seedling (Pyrus communis)	+		+
Apple	Sampion	9 or M.26
	Honeycrisp	9
	Golden Deliciuos	9
Apricot	Hungarian yellow		+	+		+
Apricot	Moorpark		+	+		+
Nectarine	Snow Queen

AKHALTSIKHE

Suggested plant species and cultivars in the table are only optional. Much more species could be grown. Attention to soil condition and fertility should be kept.

Species	Cultivar	Rootstock	Purpose
Species	Cultivar	Rootstock	fresh	dried	export fresh	export dried
Plum	Cacanska naibolja	Wangenheim seedling	+	+	+	+
Plum	Turkish varieties			+		+
Sour cherry	Lutowka	Mahaleb seedling		+		+
	Meteor	Mahaleb seedling		+		+
	Russian cultivars (dwarf)	Mahaleb seedling	+
Apple	Golden Deliciuos	9 or M.26	+
Apple	Honeycrisp	9	+
Raspberry (autumn bearing)	Porana Rosa (yellow)		+
	Erika		+
	Polka		+

AKHALKALAKI

Species	Cultivar	Rootstock	Purpose
Species	Cultivar	Rootstock	fresh	dried	export fresh	export dried
Apple	Honeycrisp	P 60 or 62-396*	+
Apple	Honeygold	P 60 or 62-396
Raspberry**	Porana Rosa		+
	Erika		+
	Polka		+
Honeysuckle* (Haskap berry)**	Russian cultivars: Tundra, Aurora and etc.		+	+		+
Saskatoon berry (Amelanchier alnifolia)	Russian or Canadian cultivars			+		+
Hazelnuts					+
Strawberry****			+

*Rootstocks for apples could be Russian or Polish origin. They are more winterhardy. Planting: grafting place just above soil surface. Overwintering under the snow.

**Raspberry (yellow fruits) – harvest in autumn, all canes cut before winter, overwintering under the snow.

***Honeysuckle plant two different cultivars for cross pollination

****Strawberries on the plastic beds, with drip irrigation, overwintering under the snow

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INTENSIVE TECHNOLOGIES IN HORTICULTURE

Saskatoon berry (Amelanchier alnifolia)